Chapter II
THE IMPOSITION, ACQUISITION AND TRANSFER OF EASEMENTS
8. Who may impose easements.
8. Who may impose easements.—An easement may be imposed by any one in the circumstances, and to the extent, in and to which he may transfer his interest in the heritage on which the liability is to be imposed.
Illustrations
(a) A is tenant of B‘s land under a lease for an unexpired term of twenty years, and has power to transfer his interest under the lease. A may impose an easement on the land to continue during the time that the lease exists or for any shorter period.
(b) A is tenant for his life of certain land with remainder to B absolutely. A cannot, unless with B‘s consent, impose an easement thereon which will continue after the determination of his life interest.
(c) A, B and C are co-owners of certain land. A cannot, without the consent of B and C, impose an easement on the land or on any part thereof.
(d) A and B are lessees of the same lessor, A of a field X for a term of five years, and B of a field Y for a term of ten years. A‘s interest under his lease is transferable; B‘s is not. A may impose on X, in favour of B, a right of way terminable with A‘s lease.
9. Servient owners.
9. Servient owners.—Subject to the provisions of Section 8, a servient owner may impose on the servient heritage any easement that does not lessen the utility of the existing easement. But he cannot, without the consent of the dominant owner, impose an easement on the servient heritage which would lessen such utility.
Illustrations
(a) A has, in respect of his mill, a right to the uninterrupted flow thereto, from sunrise to noon, of the water of B‘s stream. B may grant to C the right to divert the water of the stream from noon to sunset: Provided that A‘s supply is not thereby diminished.
(b) A has, in respect of his house, a right of way over B‘s land. B may grant to C, as the owner of a neighbouring farm, the right to feed his cattle on the grass growing on the way: Provided that A‘s right of way is not thereby obstructed.
10. Lessor and mortgagor.
10. Lessor and mortgagor.—Subject to the provisions of Section 8, a lessor may impose, on the property leased, any easement that does not derogate from the rights of the lessee as such, and a mortgagor may impose, on the property mortgaged, any easement that does not render the security insufficient. But a lessor or mortgagor cannot, without the consent of the lessee or mortgagee, impose any other easement on such property, unless it be to take effect on the termination of the lease or the redemption of the mortgage.
Explanation.—A security is insufficient within the meaning of this section unless the value of the mortgaged property exceeds by one-third, or, if consisting of buildings, exceeds by one-half, the amount for the time being due on the mortgage.
11. Lessee.
11. Lessee.—No lessee or other person having a derivative interest may impose on the property held by him as such an easement to take effect after the expiration of his own interest, or in derogation of the right of the lessor or the superior proprietor.
12. Who may acquire easements.
12. Who may acquire easements.—An easement may be acquired by the owner of the immovable property for the beneficial enjoyment of which the right is created, or on his behalf, by any person in possession of the same.
One of two or more co-owners of immovable property may, as such, with or without the consent of the other or others, acquire an easement for the beneficial enjoyment of such property.
No lessee of immovable property can acquire, for the beneficial enjoyment of other immovable property of his own, an easement in or over the property comprised in his lease.
13. Easements of necessity and quasi-easements.
13. Easements of necessity and quasi-easements.—Where one person transfers or bequeaths immovable property to another—
(a) if an easement in other immovable property of the transferor or testator is necessary for enjoying the subject of the transfer or bequest, the transferee or legatee shall be entitled to such easement; or
(b) if such an easement is apparent and continuous and necessary for enjoying the said subject as it was enjoyed when the transfer or bequest took effect, the transferee or legatee shall, unless a different intention is expressed or necessarily implied, been entitled to such easement;
(c) if an easement in the subject of the transfer or bequest is necessary for enjoying other immovable property of the transferor or testator, the transferor or the legal representative of the testator shall be entitled to such easement; or
(d) if such an easement is apparent and continuous and necessary for enjoying the said property as it was enjoyed when the transfer or bequest took effect, the transferor, or the legal representative of the testator, shall, unless a different intention is expressed or necessarily implied, be entitled to such easement.
Where a partition is made of the joint property of several persons,—
(e) if an easement over the share of one of them is necessary for enjoying the share of another of them, the latter shall be entitled to such easement, or
(f) if such an easement is apparent and continuous and necessary for enjoying the share of the latter as it was enjoyed when the partition took effect, he shall, unless the different intention is expressed or necessarily implied, be entitled to such easement.
The easements mentioned in this section, clauses (a), (c) and (e), are called easements of necessity.
Where immovable property passes by operation of law, the persons from and to whom it so passes are, for the purpose of this section, to be deemed, respectively, the transferor and transferee.
Illustrations
(a) A sells B a field then used for agricultural purposes only. It is inaccessible except by passing over A‘s adjoining land or by trespassing on the land of a stranger. B is entitled to a right of way, for agricultural purposes only, over A‘s adjoining land to the field sold.
(b) A, the owner of two fields, sells one to B, and retains the other. The field retained was, at the date of the sale, used for agricultural purposes only, and is inaccessible except by passing over the field sold to B. A is entitled to a right of way, for agricultural purposes only, over B’s field to the field retained.
(c) A sells B a house with windows overlooking A‘s land, which A retains. The light which passes over A‘s land to the windows is necessary for enjoying the house as it was enjoyed when the sale took effect. B is entitled to the light, and A cannot afterwards obstruct it by building on his land.
(d) A sells B a house with windows overlooking A‘s land. The light passing over A‘s land to the windows is necessary for enjoying the house as it was enjoyed when the sale took effect. Afterwards A sells the land to C. Here C cannot obstruct the light by building on the land, for he takes it subject to the burdens to which it was subject in A‘s hands.
(e) A is the owner of a house and adjoining land. The house has windows overlooking the land. A simultaneously sells the house to B and the land to C. The light passing over the land is necessary for enjoying the house as it was enjoyed when the sale took effect. Here A impliedly grants B a right to the light, and C takes the land subject to the restriction that he may not build so as to obstruct such light.
(f) A is the owner of a house and adjoining land. The house has windows overlooking the land. A, retaining the house, sells the land to B, without expressly reserving any easement. The light passing over the land is necessary for enjoying the house as it was enjoyed when the sale took effect. A is entitled to the light, and B cannot build on the land so as to obstruct such light.
(g) A, the owner of a house, sells B a factory built on adjoining land. B is entitled, as against A, to pollute the air, when necessary, with smoke and vapours from the factory.
(h) A, the owner of two adjoining houses, Y and Z, sells Y to B, and retains Z. B is entitled to the benefit of all the gutters and drains common to the two houses and necessary for enjoying Y as it was enjoyed when the sale took effect, and A is entitled to the benefit of all the gutters and drains common to the two houses and necessary for enjoying Z as it was enjoyed when the sale took effect.
(i) A, the owner of two adjoining buildings, sells one to B, retaining the other. B is entitled to a right to lateral support from A‘s building, and A is entitled to a right to lateral support from B‘s building.
(j) A, the owner of two adjoining buildings, sells one to B and the other to C. C is entitled to lateral support from B‘s building, and B is entitled to lateral support from C‘s building.
(k) A grants lands to B for the purpose of building a house thereon. B is entitled to such amount of lateral and subjacent support from A‘s land as is necessary for the safety of the house.
(l) Under the Land Acquisition Act, 1870[i], a Railway Company compulsorily acquires a portion of B‘s land for the purpose of making a siding. The Company is entitled to such amount of lateral support from B‘s adjoining land as is essential for the safety of the siding.
(m) Owing to the partition of joint property, A becomes the owner of an upper room in a building, and B becomes the owner of the portion of the building immediately beneath it. A is entitled to such amount of vertical support from B‘s portion as is essential for the safety of the upper room.
(n) A lets a house and grounds to B for a particular business. B has no access to them other than by crossing A‘s land. B is entitled to a right to way over that land suitable to the business to be carried on by B in the house and grounds.
14. Direction of way of necessity.
14. Direction of way of necessity.—When [ii][a right] to a way of necessity is created under Section 13, the transferor, the legal representative of the testator, or the owner of the share over which the right is exercised, as the case may be, is entitled to set out the way; but it must be reasonably convenient for the dominant owner.
When the person so entitled to set out the way refuses or neglects to do so, the dominant owner may set it out.
15. Acquisition by prescription.
15. Acquisition by prescription.—Where the access and use of light or air to and for any building have been peaceably enjoyed therewith, as an easement, without interruption, and for twenty years,
and where support from one person’s land, or things affixed thereto, has been peaceably received by another person’s land subjected to artificial pressure, or by things affixed thereto, as an easement, without interruption, and for twenty years,
and where a right of way or any other easement has been peaceably and openly enjoyed by any person claiming title thereto, as an easement, and as of right, without interruption, and for twenty years,
the right to such access and use of light or air, support, or other easement, shall be absolute.
Each of the said periods of twenty years shall be taken to be a period ending within two years next before the institution of the suit wherein the claim to which such period relates is contested.
Explanation I.—Nothing is an enjoyment within the meaning of this section when it has been had in pursuance of an agreement with the owner or occupier of the property over which the right is claimed, and it is apparent from the agreement that such right has not been granted as an easement, or, if granted as an easement, that it has been granted for a limited period, or subject to a condition on the fulfilment of which it is to cease.
Explanation II.—Nothing is an interruption within the meaning of this section unless where there is an actual cessation of the enjoyment by reason of an obstruction by the act of some person other than the claimant, and unless such obstruction is submitted to or acquiesced in for one year after the claimant has notice thereof, and of the person making or authorising the same to be made.
Explanation III.—Suspension of enjoyment in pursuance of a contract between the dominant and servient owners is not an interruption within the meaning of this section.
Explanation IV.—In the case of an easement to pollute water, the said period of twenty years begins when the pollution first prejudices perceptibly the servient heritage.
When the property over which a right is claimed under this section belongs to [iii][Government], this section shall be read as if, for the words “twenty years” the words “[iv][thirty] years” were substituted.
Illustrations
(a) A suit is brought in 1883 for obstructing a right of way. The defendant admits the obstruction but denies the right of way. The plaintiff proves that the right was peaceably and openly enjoyed by him, claiming title thereto, as an easement and as of right, without interruption, from 1st January, 1862, to 1st January, 1882. The plaintiff is entitled to judgement.
(b) In a like suit the plaintiff shows that the right was peaceably and openly enjoyed by him for twenty years. The defendant proves that for a year of that time the plaintiff was entitled to possession of the servient heritage as lessee thereof and enjoyed the right as such lessee. The suit shall be dismissed, for the right of way has not been enjoyed “as an easement” for twenty years.
(c) In a like suit the plaintiff shows that the right was peaceably and openly enjoyed by him for twenty years. The defendant proves that the plaintiff on one occasion during the twenty years had admitted that the user was not of right and asked his leave to enjoy the right. The suit shall be dismissed, for the right of way has not been enjoyed “as of right” for twenty years.
16. Exclusion in favour of reversioner of servient heritage.
16. Exclusion in favour of reversioner of servient heritage.—Provided that, when any land upon, over or from which any easement has been enjoyed or derived has been held under or by virtue of any interest for life or any term of years exceeding three years from the granting thereof, the time of the enjoyment of such easement during the continuance of such interest or term shall be excluded in the computation of the said last-mentioned period of twenty years, in case the claim is, within three years next after the determination of such, interest or term, resisted by the person entitled, on such determination, to the said land.
Illustration
A sues for a declaration that he is entitled to a right of way over B‘s land, A proves that he has enjoyed the right for twenty-five years; but B shows that during ten of these years C had a life-interest in the land; that on C‘s death B became entitled to the land; and that within two years after C‘s death he contested A‘s claim to the right. The suit must be dismissed, as A, with reference to the provisions of this section, has only proved enjoyment for fifteen years.
17. Rights which cannot be acquired by prescription.
17. Rights which cannot be acquired by prescription.—Easements acquired under Section 15 are said to be acquired by prescription, and are called prescriptive rights.
None of the following rights can be so acquired—
(a) a right which would tend to the total destruction of the subject of the right, or the property on which, if the acquisition were made, liability would be imposed;
(b) a right to the free passage of light or air to an open space of ground;
(c) a right to surface-water not flowing in a stream and not permanently collected in a pool, tank or otherwise;
(d) a right to underground water not passing in a defined channel.
18. Customary easements.
18. Customary easements.—An easement may be acquired in virtue of a local custom. Such easements are called customary easements.
Illustrations
(a) By the custom of a certain village every cultivator of village land is entitled, as such, to graze his cattle on the common pasture. A, having become the tenant of a plot of uncultivated land in the village, breaks up and cultivates that plot. He thereby acquires an easement to graze his cattle in accordance with the custom.
(b) By the custom of a certain town no owner or occupier of a house can open a new window therein so as substantially to invade his neighbour’s privacy. A builds a house in the town near B‘s house. A thereupon acquires an easement that B shall not open new windows in his house so as to command a view of the portions of A‘s house which are ordinarily excluded from observation, and B acquires a like easement with respect to A‘s house.
19. Transfer of dominant heritage passes easement.
19. Transfer of dominant heritage passes easement.—Where the dominant heritage is transferred or devolves, by act of parties or by operation of law, the transfer or devolution shall, unless a contrary intention appears, be deemed to pass the easement to the person in whose favour the transfer or devolution takes place.
Illustration
A has certain land to which a right of way is annexed. A lets the land to B for twenty years. The right of way vests in B and his legal representative so long as the lease continues.
References
[i] See now the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 (30 of 2013).
[ii] Subs. by Act 12 of 1891, for “right”.
[iii] Subs. for “Crown” by A.O. 1950.
[iv] Subs. for “sixty” by Act 36 of 1963, S. 28 (w.e.f. 1-1-1964).
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